The first obstacle was the copperplate: Americans began producing higher quality and more highly polished silvered copperplates, which was necessary for clear, acceptable portraits. Second, the exposure time had to be lowered: by 1840, the exposure time was cut from the 15 minutes to mere seconds, thus making it feasible for people to sit for a daguerreotype portrait. (Cleveland's J. F. Jenkins advertised in 1844 that it took only one and a half minutes to obtain a perfect likeness.)

In the spring of 1839, some sort of photographic prints were displayed in a Cincinnati bookstore. They were produced by John Locke, professor of chemistry and pharmacy at the Medical College of Ohio. Sign painter Ezekiel C. Hawkins is believed to have established the second daguerreotype gallery in the United States, in Cincinnati in 1840.

By 1851, Cincinnatians had a choice of 32 daguerreotype photographers. They sold $80,000 worth of pictures in 1851. This new artistic medium was first shown in Cleveland in 1842. Four of Daguerre's "Chemical Pictures" were shown at the courthouse on three August evenings for the admission price of fifty cents. A letter to the editor extolled this exhibit by saying, "a sight of them is worth a score of concerts, or a dozen feats of 'grand and lofty tumblin.'" In an editorial, the newspaper stated that the exhibition was "one of quiet, unalloyed gratification, and the changes produced on the same canvas by different reflections of light are marvels that must be seen to be appreciated or credited." (Cleveland Newspaper Digest, 1842:14.) That same fall, the first advertisement appeared in the Cleveland newspapers for a daguerreotype studio, E. Dibble's, in the Franklin building.

Many of the better practitioners were accomplished artists, especially of portraiture. As a result, they were experienced in lighting, proportions, and posing. The best results indoors demanded a large skylight or a large window-facing northwest. The importance of light in this field is evidenced by the advertisements of early daguerreian galleries. In 1852, the Forest City Daguerreian Rooms of Cleveland announced they had "the largest and best skylight in the city." By the mid-1850s, daguerreian galleries advertised that they could make daguerreotypes in any type of weather.

Daguerrotypists were also proficient in disguising or minimizing flaws of the portrait sitters. Techniques included placement of the camera and rubbing the skin of a freckled face until it was red, in order to disguise the spots. Posing sitters, especially in the early years, reflected the artistic background of the daguerreotypists. Positions, props, and backgrounds all were reminiscent of 18th century painting.

It was not uncommon in the early days of photography to be a sideline. Cleveland photographer James F. Ryder wrote in his memoirs that it was common "to find watch repairers, dentists, and other styles of business folk to carry daguerreotype 'on the side.' It was possible to have a horse shod, your boots tapped, a tooth pulled or a likeness taken by the same man; verily, a daguerreotype man, in his time, played many parts" (20). Daguerreotypes were not inexpensive. A quarter plate, 3 1/2 inches x 4 1/2 inches, could cost over four dollars, not a small amount in the 1840s. Some of the more well-known artists charged five dollars for a daguerreotype portrait. Despite the price, it was estimated that Americans spent about eight to 12 million dollars annually on daguerreotypes in the 1840s. (Rudisill 198).

Many people today remark on the dour expressions found in 19th century photographs. One would think that not a single person in the 1800s ever smiled. However, these expressions were a result of the process, not the personality of the subject. The exposure time for the early daguerreotypes was several seconds. Any movement while the photograph was being taken would blur the image. Evidence of this can be seen in photographs of people and their pets, like dogs. The dog is usually blurred, while the people are clear and in focus. Because of this factor in 19th century photography, portrait sitters were asked not to smile. Thus the sitter was instructed to maintain a normal facial expression, which could be done without movement, while the plate was exposed.

The Chicago Inter-Ocean in 1877 carried an article regarding sitting for pictures: If a lady wanted to present a serene expression, into which the mouth subsides until the desired effect … is evident." A distinguished look could be obtained by saying "Brush." If a lady wanted her mouth to appear smaller, then "Flip" was the word; larger, the word was "Cabbage." "Kerchunk" was used for a mournful look, and "S'cat" for a look of resignation. Obviously, "Cheese" would never do!

In addition, to ensure that the sitter would remain absolutely still, clamp-like devices were used, the bases of which can often be seen behind or between the subject's feet in photographs. This long exposure time, unfortunately, has resulted in hundreds of photographs of grim-faced ancestors. James. F. Ryder, Cleveland daguerreotypist, stated that the daguerreotype camera was "truth itself. What he told me was as gospel. No misrepresentations, no deceits, no equivocations. He saw the world without prejudices; he looked upon humanity with an eye single to justice. What he saw was faithfully reported, exact, and without blemish."

The major characteristic that still set portrait painting apart from daguerreotypes was color. Many daguerreotypists experimented with ways to provide "color portraiture" in a daguerreotype. Some practitioners knowledgeable in chemistry experimented with various chemicals which would tint the daguerreotype green, brown, or gold. The latter was obtained by gilding the daguerreotype.

In 1842 a method of coloring the picture was patented. The daguerreotype was coated with a transparent varnish or gum and then was painted by the daguerreotypist, if he or she was an accomplished painter, or by gallery employees whose sole job was to paint over the images. The painting could be of the entire figure, or simply rosy cheeks. The early daguerreotypes were also known to fade, so retouching was part of the procedure. Overpainting was also common, especially when enlargements were made. This was done in three possible media: watercolors, charcoal, or crayon.

Many early daguerreotypists were itinerants, wandering from town to town with their wagons filled with their equipment and chemicals, offering to take pictures of homes and buildings, as well as portraits. These itinerants would stay a month or two in one town and then move on to the next. A. Bisbee, a Dayton daguerreotypist, wrote an instruction book for his fellow practitioners which detailed what traveling photographers should look for in obtaining rooms for sittings. "A traveling artist who can secure an upper room with a window three feet wide and six high, can do very well, but if it be larger it is all the better. A side and sky-light combined make the best light. Each should be about eight feet square, and the sky light should be on an angle of about 45 degrees. They should always have a northern exposure if possible, or perhaps north-east would be as well" (Bisbee 30).

Landscape paintings were very popular, so the landscape daguerreotype also found its audience. Charles Fontayne and William S. Porter of Cincinnati produced a panorama in 1848, which consisted of eight large-size plates showing the view of two miles of the Ohio River from the town of Fulton to Vine Street in Cincinnati. Newspapers and magazines also hired daguerreotypists to provide city views and other landscapes which were then copied by engravers to be published. Painters also used daguerreotypes of all kinds of models for their art.

Another popular use of daguerreotypes was for photographing the dead and also for mounting on tombstones. Often one of the first persons called in the event of a death, especially of a child, was the daguerreotypist, so the parents would have a remembrance of the lost child. Some family portraits show a mother or father holding a daguerreotype of a deceased child. If a person had to be buried before a photograph could be obtained, bodies were occasionally exhumed to be photographed later when a photographer was available. A daguerreotype was often mounted on the tombstone in a moisture-proof case. A Columbus firm, World Manufacturing Company, offered "the Indestructible Monumental Photograph Case," (Henisch 184). One advertisement read, "Your duty to your beloved friends and relatives remains unfulfilled without having placed one of these beautiful cases upon their monument, so that you and your friends might often see them as they were known on earth "(Henisch 184-85).

Most American daguerreotypes are found in cases, which usually look like miniature books. It is not known how this developed in this country, but it could be related to miniature painting, which was very popular in the late 1700s and early 1800s. These small portraits were then cased for display and for travel. The early daguerreotypes may have been seen as likely candidates for these cases. Jewel cases were also used in the early days before special daguerreotype cases were manufactured.

The early cases were made of wood, papier mache, and later, plastic. The right or bottom side of the case was used for the daguerreotype. The daguerreotype was protected by a gold-colored matting and then covered with glass. The three layers were bound together by a protector, which was a thin brass frame which wrapped around the whole. This was then pressed into the frame of the case. The left or top side of the case was padded with silk, satin, or velvet. When closed the case was latched with a small hook. The daguerreotype ranged in size from 6 1/2 x 8 1/2 inches to 1 1/2 x 1 5/8. The most common size in America was called the "sixth" size: 2 1/2 x 3 1/2 inches. (For more information on the dating of cases, see "Dating Cased Photographs," on page 11). It is important to remember that the date of the case may not be the date of the photograph on the inside, for the daguerreotype cases were often reused for later forms of photography like ambrotypes and even tintypes.

American daguerreotypists entered works in many art competitions here and in Europe, especially England. By 1851, American daguerreotypes were deemed to be of a higher quality than those found in England. English critics felt this was due to the clean air found in America (compared to London's smoggy atmosphere) and the resultant brighter lighting. However, part of the difference might also be the higher-quality silvered plates used in America.

Daguerrotypes were doomed to a short life. By 1860, the daguerreotype was being replaced by less expensive forms of photography: the ambrotype and the ferrotype (tintype). Another factor in the demise may have been the demise of many daguerrotypists. Daguerreotypes were developed by immersing the plates in a mercury solution and then heating them. Mercury vapor was a by-product of the process, and many daguerreotypists suffered from mercury poisoning. Whatever the reason, by the Civil War era, Americans had moved on to other forms of photography.

The first one involves the qualities of a daguerreotype. Because the image is produced on a highly polished, silvered copperplate, the image will be difficult to see in certain positions. While holding the cased photograph, move the case around at different angles. If the image seems to disappear in certain positions, is difficult to discern, or has a mirror-like quality, then it is probably a daguerreotype rather than an ambrotype or tintype.

You may also place a magnet at the back of the case section holding the picture. If the magnet is attracted to the case, then it is a daguerreotype and not an ambrotype, which is made of glass; however, it could be a tintype, so the first test should be done as well. In addition, the daguerreotype has a very detailed image when compared to other cased photographs.

If you have determined that a cased photograph is a daguerreotype, then it was taken between 1840 and 1860. More precise dating can be done by checking the costumes, etc. found in the photograph.

Ambrotypes, being made of glass, were fragile and were housed in casing like the daguerreotype. Later in this period, coral glass, a deep red glass, was used to back the ambrotype, which gave them a rose-colored appearance. Ambrotypes were also hand-painted to add color. The major disadvantage of the ambrotype, besides being glass, is that copies could not be made. Each ambrotype is an original.

Before attempting to do any type of restoration, have a photographic copy made of the image. Once that is done, one can proceed to provide a new backing. Remove the ambrotype in its preserver frame from the casing. Carefully remove the frame, and set aside the ambrotype emulsion side up. DO NOT ATTEMPT TO CLEAN THE EMULSION SIDE OF THE GLASS. The original form of backing may be a black varnish. Do not attempt to duplicate this.

The best form of replacement backing is a piece of polyester-based sheet film. This film should be one that has been fully exposed to light and then developed and archivally washed. This would need to be prepared in advance to ensure it is completely dry. Cut the film to fit the back of the ambrotype, and then restore the preserver frame to the glass plate. Place the film in the case first, followed by the ambrotype. You should now have a greatly improved image.

Before reinserting the ambrotype in the case, check for any information that may be in the case, such as photographers' names, etc. Once this has been recorded, then replace the ambrotype in its case. Storage would be the same as for a cased daguerrotype.

First, check the mat used to frame the photograph. In the 1840s, the mats were very simple: thin brass mats of oval, octagonal, or other plain designs. A daguerreotype of the 1840s would consist of three elements: the image, the mat, and the cover glass. This was secured in the right side of the case with a rim of velvet-covered cardboard. In the 1850s, however, a fourth item was added: a pliable gilded brass preserver, which held the three elements together by wrapping around the layers. In the 1850s, the mats were more ornate, with scalloped edges, perhaps. In the mid-1850s to the 1860s, the mats are quite ornate, with beaded edging or embossed designs.

Second, look at the makeup of the case itself. From 1849 to 1854, the cases are book-like and usually made of wood and covered with embossed paper or leather. The designs on the cases would be natural ones. If the case is plastic, then it dates to 1854 or later. In the 1860s, the designs on the cases became more patriotic, largely due to the Civil War, so one sees American eagles, Civil War camp scenes, and Union Forever motifs on the cases.

If you have determined that the cased photograph is an ambrotype and the case is from the 1840s, then you can surmise that the original daguerreotype has been replaced by the ambrotype, which was not available until 1852.

The tintype gained in popularity after the 1860s, largely due to competitive ferrotype firms, like that of another Ohioan, Victor Griswold, who held his own patent for the process, using a thinner sheet of metal. The Civil War made the tintype the most popular form of photography because of its durability, unlike the ambrotype, and its quick development time-one minute from exposure to finished product.

Another factor in the tintype's popularity was the development of the multi-lens camera, which could take multiple images on a single metal sheet. After being processed the sheet was cut apart leaving pictures of 2.5 x 3.5 inches usually. However, it was also possible to make very tiny portraits for buttons, campaign pins, etc., with 36 images on a 5 x 7 metal sheet.

Early tintypes were often put in old daguerreotype or ambrotype cases, so it is often difficult to distinguish between cased ambrotypes and tintypes. The easiest way is the magnet test. However, most tintypes are not found in cases, but loose or in photo albums. Establishing a date can be difficult because of the long period in which they were made. If the image has a chocolate-brown tone to it, it dates after 1870. To be more precise, the viewer must look at other aspects of the tintype's image, such as the props and the fashions.

Crawford, William. The Keepers of the Light-A History and Working Guide to Early Photographic Processes. Dobbs Ferry, NY: 1979.

Frisch-Ripley, Karen. Unlocking the Secrets in Old Photographs. Salt Lake City: Ancestry, 1991.

Henisch, Heinz K., and Bridget A. Henisch. The Photographic Experience: 1839-1914, Images and Attitudes. University Park, PA: Penn State U. Press, 1993.

Newhall, Beaumont. The Daguerreotype in America. 3rd rev. ed. New York: Dover Publications, 1976.

Palmquist, Peter E., ed. Photographers: A Sourcebook for Historical Research. Brownsville, VA: Carl Mautz Publishing, 1991.

Reilly, James M. Care and Identification of Nineteenth Century Photographic Prints. Rochester, NY: 1986.

Rinhart, Floyd, and Marian Rinhart. American Daguerreian Art. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1967.

Rudisill, Richard. Mirror Image: The Influence of the Daguerreotype on American Society. Albuquerque: U. of New Mexico Press, 1971.

Wood, John, ed. America and the Daguerreotype. Iowa City: U. of Iowa Press, 1991.

Welling, William. Collectors' Guide to Nineteenth Century Photographs. New York: Collier Macmillan Publishers.